Isophthalic Acid Market by Type, Application and Region – Global Market Size Estimation, Industry-Wide Analysis, Competitive Landscape Assessment & Long-Term Forecast to 2034

7.8%
CAGR (2026-2034)
3.42 USD Bn.
Forecast Market Size
325
Report Pages
160
Market Tables

Overview

The Isophthalic Acid Market size was valued at USD 3.42 Billion in 2025 and the total Isophthalic Acid revenue is expected to grow at a CAGR of 7.8% from 2026 to 2034, reaching nearly USD 6.72 Billion.

Bending interest towards adoption of ready to eat (packed) food and beverages and demand for high quality resins for packaging in the food industry is increasing demand for the isophthalic acid market. Regionally, Asia Pacific region is expected to dominate the market, approximately 40-45% of market share is documented by this region.

Isophthalic Acid Market Analysis from 2025 to 2034

Isophthalic Acid Market Growth

To know about the Research Methodology :- Request Free Sample Report

Isophthalic Acid Market Definition:

Isophthalic acid are also known as "organic compound", which is an isomer of phthalic and terephthalic acid. It generally available in crystalline form having unpleasant odour with chemical formula C6H4(COOH)2, obtain by oxidation of meta-xylene and delivers vast application in production of plasticizers, synthetic resins in numerous end-user sector.

Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers and Restraints:

Continuous developments in the method of synthesis of isophthalic acid using advanced equipment and technology is helping the market to expand in terms of value and volume.

Key aspect to drive the global isophthalic acid market is projected to pushed by the huge request for the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle resin amongst numerous emerging industries. There is huge demand for the isophthalic acid in the production of PET reins which acts as a chief ingredient hence expected to boost the market demand in the coming years. As a result, an upsurge in the huge consumption of PET globally is likely to deliver significant employment to producers engaged in the production of isophthalic acid in the developed and developing economies. Moreover, noticeable properties like excellent resistance properties of the isophthalic acid are catching the attention of consumers as well as vendors to invest in the market will exaggerate the market demand in the coming years.

Furthermore, growth in the end-use industries for instance, plasticizer, former agent, coating, plastics, lubricants, others are going to contribute for the market growth on large scale during the forecasted years. Growth of the manufacturing sector and production unit in emergent economies such as India, China, Brazil, and other countries is expected to show significant growth of the Isophthalic Acid market in the coming years.

Another factor to fuel the market demand is documented for the huge advancement in the advanced polyester coating industries across the globe which is comprised of isophthalic acid and offers broad range of application in context of aluminum siding, home appliances, metal office furniture and automobiles, is expected to supplement the isophthalic acid market. It is also active as an intermediate for polyurethane resins, plasticizers and polyesters and further.

Conversely, environmental concern by the government together with noticeable variation in the raw material price and major drop in crude oil market, expected to pull the market growth during the forecast timespan.

Isophthalic Acid Market Segment analysis:

By application of Isophthalic Acid, coating sector was uppermost driving segment, accounting for over 45% of the market share in 2025. Automobile coating with advanced technology is constantly recording significant growth owing to increasing demand from developing countries such as India and China. Furthermore, rising consumption of the materials in construction and furniture is considered as the major drivers for global isophthalic acid, also huge preference in the metal and wood furniture coating globally owing to growing awareness amongst the population will boost the market growth. On the other hand, new technology and advancement is another factor to propel the market demand in terms of value and volume. Additionally, huge demand of the material as an intermediate in the polyester resins and polyester coating high requirement for the durability and smooth finishing after application is the key factor to attract the consumer is leading the market growth.

Isophthalic Acid Market Regional Analysis:

Regionally, Asia Pacific is expected to dominate the market and is expected to grow at a CAGR of x.x % during the forecast period. Developing regions like India, China, and Brazil are considered major contributors for the market growth in the Asia Pacific region. In 2025 market size was valued US$ xx Bn though in China, market size was valued xx Bn and expected to increase by US$ xx Bn in the coming years. Furthermore, as this region is considered as manufacturing hotspot such as paints and coatings, chemicals, plasticizers, lubricants and others is projected to boost the market growth during forecasted period.

Europe is the second-largest market for Isophthalic Acid because of growing demand for PET resins manufactured by using isophthalic acid. Also, paints and coatings application in developing economies owing to growth in the construction industry and growth in the chemical sector is anticipated to considerably boost the segment growth in Europe.

The objective of the report is to present a comprehensive analysis of the Global Market including all the stakeholders of the industry. The past and current status of the industry with forecasted market size and trends are presented in the report with the analysis of complicated data in simple language. The report covers all the aspects of the industry with a dedicated study of key players that includes market leaders, followers and new entrants. PORTER, SVOR, PESTEL analysis with the potential impact of micro-economic factors of the market have been presented in the report. External as well as internal factors that are supposed to affect the business positively or negatively have been analysed, which will give a clear futuristic view of the industry to the decision-makers.

The report also helps in understanding Global Market dynamics, structure by analysing the market segments and project the Global Market size. Clear representation of competitive analysis of key players by Application, price, financial position, Product portfolio, growth strategies, and regional presence in the Global Market make the report investor’s guide.

Isophthalic Acid Market Recent Industry Development

Date Company Development Impact
18 January 2025 LOTTE Chemical LOTTE Chemical announced the operational optimization of its high-purity purified isophthalic acid (PIA) and purified terephthalic acid (PTA) processing units in Yeosu to enhance supply efficiency for premium PET resin producers. The initiative boosts production yield by 12% while strengthening the company's regional footprint in eco-friendly packaging materials.
22 November 2025 Indorama Ventures Indorama Ventures commercialized an upgraded recycled PET copolymer resin formulation incorporating high-purity isophthalic acid modifiers to increase structural clarity. The technology enhances bottle clarity and impact strength, accelerating the adoption of sustainable packaging across food and beverage sectors.
04 February 2026 Mitsubishi Chemical Group Mitsubishi Chemical Group commissioned a next-generation oxidation process pilot for meta-xylene oxidation to improve the efficiency of industrial isophthalic acid synthesis. The new catalyst deployment lowers energy consumption per metric ton by 15% and reduces overall manufacturing byproduct waste.

Isophthalic Acid Market Scope: Inquire before buying

Isophthalic Acid Market
Report Coverage Details
Base Year: 2025 Forecast Period: 2026-2034
Historical Data: 2020 to 2025 Market Size in 2025: USD 3.42 Bn.
Forecast Period 2026 to 2034 CAGR: 7.8% Market Size in 2034: USD 6.72 Bn.
Segments Covered: by Type Industrial Grade
Reagent Grade
by Application Chemical Raw Materials
Packaging
Automotive
Plasticizer
Former Agent
Coating
Plastics
Lubricants
Others

Isophthalic Acid Market, by Region

North America (United States, Canada and Mexico)
Europe (UK, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Austria and Rest of Europe)
Asia Pacific (China, South Korea, Japan, India, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Rest of APAC)
Middle East and Africa (South Africa, GCC, Egypt, Nigeria and Rest of ME&A)
South America (razil, Argentina Rest of South America)

Isophthalic Acid Market, Key Players:

1. LOTTE Chemical CORPORATION
2. The Chemical Company
3. Eastman Chemical Company
4. G. International Chemical Co. Inc
5. Hefei TNJ Chemical Industry Co.,Ltd.
6. SILVER FERN CHEMICAL, INC
7. Tecnosintesi S.p.A.
8. Dhalop Chemicals
9. Interquisa
10. KOHAP Corporation
11. EMCO Dyestuff
12. Marubeni Europe plc
13. Hanhong Group
14. Xiamen Hisunny
15. Mitsubishi Chemical
16. Zhejiang Kaili
17. DVP Chemicals
18. A.G. International Chemical
19. Nanjing Tianxie
20. Anhui Royal
21. Haihang
22. Neostar United
23. Alfa Aesar
24. Sigma Aldrich Corporation
25. Perstorp
26. British Petroleum
27. Total Petrochemicals
28. Exxonmobil

Frequently Asked Questions:

1. Which region has the largest share in Global Isophthalic Acid Market?
Ans: Asia-Pacific region held the highest share in 2025.

2. What was the Global Isophthalic Acid Market size in 2025?
Ans: The Global Isophthalic Acid Market size was USD 3.42 Billion in 2025.

3. What is scope of the Global Isophthalic Acid market report?
Ans: Global Isophthalic Acid Market report helps with the PESTEL, PORTER, COVID-19 Impact analysis, Recommendations for Investors & Leaders, and market estimation of the forecast period.

4. Who are the key players in Global Isophthalic Acid market?
Ans: The important key players in the Global Isophthalic Acid Market are – LOTTE Chemical CORPORATION, The Chemical Company, Eastman Chemical Company, G. International Chemical Co. Inc, Hefei TNJ Chemical Industry Co.,Ltd., SILVER FERN CHEMICAL, INC, Tecnosintesi S.p.A.,

5. What is the study period of this market?
Ans: The Global Isophthalic Acid Market is studied from 2025 to 2034.

Table of Contents

1. Isophthalic Acid Market Introduction 1.1. Study Assumption and Market Definition 1.2. Scope of the Study 1.3. Executive Summary 2. Global Isophthalic Acid Market: Competitive Landscape 2.1. MMR Competition Matrix 2.2. Competitive Landscape 2.3. Key Players Benchmarking 2.3.1. Company Name 2.3.2. Business Segment 2.3.3. End-user Segment 2.3.4. Revenue (2025) 2.3.5. Company Locations 2.4. Leading Isophthalic Acid Market Companies, by market capitalization 2.5. Market Structure 2.5.1. Market Leaders 2.5.2. Market Followers 2.5.3. Emerging Players 2.6. Mergers and Acquisitions Details 3. Isophthalic Acid Market: Dynamics 3.1. Isophthalic Acid Market Trends by Region 3.1.1. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Trends 3.1.2. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Trends 3.1.3. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Trends 3.1.4. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Trends 3.1.5. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Trends 3.2. Isophthalic Acid Market Dynamics by Region 3.2.1. North America 3.2.1.1. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers 3.2.1.2. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Restraints 3.2.1.3. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Opportunities 3.2.1.4. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Challenges 3.2.2. Europe 3.2.2.1. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers 3.2.2.2. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Restraints 3.2.2.3. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Opportunities 3.2.2.4. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Challenges 3.2.3. Asia Pacific 3.2.3.1. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers 3.2.3.2. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Restraints 3.2.3.3. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Opportunities 3.2.3.4. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Challenges 3.2.4. Middle East and Africa 3.2.4.1. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers 3.2.4.2. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Restraints 3.2.4.3. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Opportunities 3.2.4.4. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Challenges 3.2.5. South America 3.2.5.1. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Drivers 3.2.5.2. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Restraints 3.2.5.3. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Opportunities 3.2.5.4. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Challenges 3.3. PORTER's Five Forces Analysis 3.4. PESTLE Analysis 3.5. Technology Roadmap 3.6. Regulatory Landscape by Region 3.6.1. North America 3.6.2. Europe 3.6.3. Asia Pacific 3.6.4. Middle East and Africa 3.6.5. South America 3.7. Key Opinion Leader Analysis For Isophthalic Acid Industry 3.8. Analysis of Government Schemes and Initiatives For Isophthalic Acid Industry 3.9. Isophthalic Acid Market Trade Analysis 3.10. The Global Pandemic Impact on Isophthalic Acid Market 4. Isophthalic Acid Market: Global Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 4.1. Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 4.1.1. Industrial Grade 4.1.2. Reagent Grade 4.2. Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 4.2.1. Chemical Raw Materials 4.2.2. Packaging 4.2.3. Automotive 4.2.4. Plasticizer 4.2.5. Former Agent 4.2.6. Coating 4.2.7. Plastics 4.2.8. Lubricants 4.2.9. Others 4.3. Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Region (2025-2034) 4.3.1. North America 4.3.2. Europe 4.3.3. Asia Pacific 4.3.4. Middle East and Africa 4.3.5. South America 5. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 5.1. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 5.1.1. Industrial Grade 5.1.2. Reagent Grade 5.2. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 5.2.1. Chemical Raw Materials 5.2.2. Packaging 5.2.3. Automotive 5.2.4. Plasticizer 5.2.5. Former Agent 5.2.6. Coating 5.2.7. Plastics 5.2.8. Lubricants 5.2.9. Others 5.3. North America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Country (2025-2034) 5.3.1. United States 5.3.1.1. United States Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 5.3.1.1.1. Industrial Grade 5.3.1.1.2. Reagent Grade 5.3.1.2. United States Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 5.3.1.2.1. Chemical Raw Materials 5.3.1.2.2. Packaging 5.3.1.2.3. Automotive 5.3.1.2.4. Plasticizer 5.3.1.2.5. Former Agent 5.3.1.2.6. Coating 5.3.1.2.7. Plastics 5.3.1.2.8. Lubricants 5.3.1.2.9. Others 5.3.2. Canada 5.3.2.1. Canada Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 5.3.2.1.1. Industrial Grade 5.3.2.1.2. Reagent Grade 5.3.2.2. Canada Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 5.3.2.2.1. Chemical Raw Materials 5.3.2.2.2. Packaging 5.3.2.2.3. Automotive 5.3.2.2.4. Plasticizer 5.3.2.2.5. Former Agent 5.3.2.2.6. Coating 5.3.2.2.7. Plastics 5.3.2.2.8. Lubricants 5.3.2.2.9. Others 5.3.3. Mexico 5.3.3.1. Mexico Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 5.3.3.1.1. Industrial Grade 5.3.3.1.2. Reagent Grade 5.3.3.2. Mexico Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 5.3.3.2.1. Chemical Raw Materials 5.3.3.2.2. Packaging 5.3.3.2.3. Automotive 5.3.3.2.4. Plasticizer 5.3.3.2.5. Former Agent 5.3.3.2.6. Coating 5.3.3.2.7. Plastics 5.3.3.2.8. Lubricants 5.3.3.2.9. Others 6. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 6.1. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.2. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3. Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Country (2025-2034) 6.3.1. United Kingdom 6.3.1.1. United Kingdom Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.1.2. United Kingdom Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.2. France 6.3.2.1. France Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.2.2. France Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.3. Germany 6.3.3.1. Germany Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.3.2. Germany Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.4. Italy 6.3.4.1. Italy Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.4.2. Italy Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.5. Spain 6.3.5.1. Spain Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.5.2. Spain Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.6. Sweden 6.3.6.1. Sweden Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.6.2. Sweden Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.7. Austria 6.3.7.1. Austria Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.7.2. Austria Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 6.3.8. Rest of Europe 6.3.8.1. Rest of Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 6.3.8.2. Rest of Europe Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 7.1. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.2. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3. Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Country (2025-2034) 7.3.1. China 7.3.1.1. China Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.1.2. China Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.2. S Korea 7.3.2.1. S Korea Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.2.2. S Korea Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.3. Japan 7.3.3.1. Japan Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.3.2. Japan Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.4. India 7.3.4.1. India Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.4.2. India Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.5. Australia 7.3.5.1. Australia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.5.2. Australia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.6. Indonesia 7.3.6.1. Indonesia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.6.2. Indonesia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.7. Malaysia 7.3.7.1. Malaysia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.7.2. Malaysia Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.8. Vietnam 7.3.8.1. Vietnam Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.8.2. Vietnam Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.9. Taiwan 7.3.9.1. Taiwan Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.9.2. Taiwan Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 7.3.10. Rest of Asia Pacific 7.3.10.1. Rest of Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 7.3.10.2. Rest of Asia Pacific Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 8. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 8.1. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 8.2. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 8.3. Middle East and Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Country (2025-2034) 8.3.1. South Africa 8.3.1.1. South Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 8.3.1.2. South Africa Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 8.3.2. GCC 8.3.2.1. GCC Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 8.3.2.2. GCC Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 8.3.3. Nigeria 8.3.3.1. Nigeria Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 8.3.3.2. Nigeria Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 8.3.4. Rest of ME&A 8.3.4.1. Rest of ME&A Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 8.3.4.2. Rest of ME&A Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 9. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast by Segmentation (in USD Billion) 2025-2034 9.1. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 9.2. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 9.3. South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Country (2025-2034) 9.3.1. Brazil 9.3.1.1. Brazil Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 9.3.1.2. Brazil Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 9.3.2. Argentina 9.3.2.1. Argentina Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 9.3.2.2. Argentina Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 9.3.3. Rest Of South America 9.3.3.1. Rest Of South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Type (2025-2034) 9.3.3.2. Rest Of South America Isophthalic Acid Market Size and Forecast, by Application (2025-2034) 10. Company Profile: Key Players 10.1. LOTTE Chemical CORPORATION 10.1.1. Company Overview 10.1.2. Business Portfolio 10.1.3. Financial Overview 10.1.4. SWOT Analysis 10.1.5. Strategic Analysis 10.1.6. Scale of Operation (small, medium, and large) 10.1.7. Details on Partnership 10.1.8. Regulatory Accreditations and Certifications Received by Them 10.1.9. Awards Received by the Firm 10.1.10. Recent Developments 10.2. The Chemical Company 10.3. Eastman Chemical Company 10.4. G. International Chemical Co. Inc 10.5. Hefei TNJ Chemical Industry Co.,Ltd. 10.6. SILVER FERN CHEMICAL, INC 10.7. Tecnosintesi S.p.A. 10.8. Dhalop Chemicals 10.9. Interquisa 10.10. KOHAP Corporation 10.11. EMCO Dyestuff 10.12. Marubeni Europe plc 10.13. Hanhong Group 10.14. Xiamen Hisunny 10.15. Mitsubishi Chemical 10.16. Zhejiang Kaili 10.17. DVP Chemicals 10.18. A.G. International Chemical 10.19. Nanjing Tianxie 10.20. Anhui Royal 10.21. Haihang 10.22. Neostar United 10.23. Alfa Aesar 10.24. Sigma Aldrich Corporation 10.25. Perstorp 10.26. British Petroleum 10.27. Total Petrochemicals 10.28. Exxonmobil 11. Key Findings 12. Industry Recommendations 13. Isophthalic Acid Market: Research Methodology 14. Terms and Glossary

Custom Market Research Services

We Will Customise The Research For You, In Case The Report Listed Above Does Not Meet With Your Requirements